British Empire (1849–1947 CE)
The British Empire played a significant role in the history of Pakistan during the period from 1849 to 1947. During this time, the Indian subcontinent was under British colonial rule, and the region that is now Pakistan was an integral part of British India.
British rule brought profound changes to the area, including the introduction of new administrative systems, legal frameworks, and infrastructural developments such as railways and canals. These changes reshaped the social and economic fabric of the region, often prioritizing British interests.
Timeline of Pakistan From 1849 to 1947
Here is a brief timeline of significant events related to the British Empire in the region that is now Pakistan, from 1849 to 1947:
| 1849: The province of Punjab was annexed by the British. |
| Punjab, alternatively spelled Panjab, existed as a province of British India. The East India Company annexed a significant portion of the Punjab region in 1849. This acquisition marked one of the final areas on the Indian subcontinent to come under British control. |
| 1850: Urdu becomes the official language |
| In 1850, Urdu was designated as the official language in the western provinces of British India, which corresponds to present-day Pakistan. It’s important to note that Sindh was excluded from this language policy. |
| May 1857: War of Independence |
| The 1857 War of Independence, labeled the “Mutiny” by the British, was led by Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, impacting Muslims in India. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan addressed the causes, arguing that both Muslims and Hindus were responsible. He published pamphlets like “Loyal Muhammadans” to showcase Muslims who saved British lives and wrote a book emphasizing similarities between Islam and Christianity, aiming to promote understanding between communities and advance Muslim education and social standing |
| 1857 8 July: Bahadur Shah II was arrested and deported. |
| The seat of the Mughal empire in India, was captured by the British from the mutineers. Emperor Bahadur Shah II was subsequently arrested and deported. |
| 1857 September 19-20: British forces captured the Red Fort |
| In 1857, the British forces seized the Red Fort by entering through the Lahore Gate, a maneuver orchestrated by Brigadier Jones. In response, Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar fled to the tomb of Humayun, seeking refuge along with his family. This event unfolded during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and marked a crucial moment in the decline of Mughal authority in India. |
| 1857 September 22: Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested by Captain William Hodson |
| Bahadur Shah Zafar, accompanied by two queens, three sons – Jawan Bakht, Mirza Mughal, and Khizr Sultan, alongside his grandson Abu Bakr, faced arrest by Captain William Hodson. Tragically, two of the princes were fatally shot by Captain Hodson, and their severed heads were presented before the King. |
| 1857 1 November: British Annexation into the British Indian Empire |
| The British gained control of most of the present-day Pakistan region on November 1, 1857, incorporating it into the British Indian Empire. |
| January-March 1858: Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried by the Military Court |
| In 1858, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was tried by a British Military Court. He, along with his two wives and son, was subsequently exiled to Rangoon (Yangon) in Burma, marking the end of the Mughal rule in India and Bahadur Shah Zafar’s life in the country. |
| August 1858: India Act To Power Transferred to british government |
| After the 1857 Indian Mutiny, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act in 1858, transferring control from the East India Company to the British Crown. Queen Victoria was the reigning monarch. This marked the start of direct British rule in India, known as the British Raj, until India gained independence in 1947. |
| November 7, 1862: Bahadur Shah Zafar Passed Away |
| Bahadur Shah II, also known as Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor of India, was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon) in Myanmar by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. He died in Rangoon on November 7, 1862, and was buried there. The tomb of Bahadur Shah Zafar is located in Yangon, and it is a site of historical significance. |
| 1864: Sir Sayed founded the scientific societies |
| Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the Scientific Society in Ghazipur, not Ghazi pur. The Scientific Society was established in 1864 with the aim of promoting scientific knowledge and introducing Western education in India. |
| 1867: Urdu Hindi Controversy. |
| Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was worried about Hindus wanting to replace Urdu with Hindi in courts. He told Commissioner Mr. Shakespeare, “I’m convinced these two nations won’t unite. There’s no fighting now, but because of educated people, it will increase in the future. People alive then will see it happen.” |
| April 29, 1870: Sir Syed wrote to Nawab Mohsinul Mulk |
| In a letter to Nawab Mohsinul Mulk on April 29, 1870, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan expressed worry about a proposal. He thought that if Muslims were forced to use Hindi and Hindus insisted on the same, it would create a division between the two communities. Sir Syed believed this could lead to Hindus and Muslims being completely separated, making unity between them impossible. |
| December 26, 1870; Sir Syed started a Society for the Educational Progress . |
| Sir Syed Ahmad Khan returned from England in 1870, and upon his return, he initiated efforts to promote education among Muslims. However, the establishment of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh took place a few years later. The college was inaugurated on January 24, 1877, not in 1870. |
| 1871: Sir William Wilson Hunter Remarks |
| Sir William Wilson Hunter (1840–1900) was a Scottish historian, statistician, and bureaucrat during the British colonial era. He served in various administrative capacities in India and is known for his works on Indian history and administration. |
| May 25, 1875: Sir Syed founded a school at Aligarh |
| The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College was indeed established by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in Aligarh, India, with the goal of providing modern education to Muslims. The foundation stone of the college was laid on January 8, 1877, and the opening ceremony took place on January 24, 1877. However, classes officially commenced on June 1, 1875. |
| 1877-1878: Russo-Turkish war |
| The Treaty of Gandamak was not directly related to the Russo-Turkish War, which took place between 1877 and 1878. The Russo-Turkish War was fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, and its conclusion was marked by the Treaty of San Stefano in March 1878. |
| 1878-1880: Second Afghan War |
| The Second Anglo-Afghan War was a military conflict between the British Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan, led by Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dynasty, the son of former Emir Dost Mohammad Khan. This war was a crucial episode in the Great Game, a geopolitical rivalry between the British and Russian empires. |
| January 12, 1883: Sir Syed, speaking on the Local Self-Government Bill |
| As a member of the Imperial Legislative Council, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, while discussing the Local Self-Government Bill, expressed his views on the system of representation by election. He argued that while election-based representation is suitable for countries with a homogenous population, India’s diverse social fabric, characterized by caste distinctions and religious differences, required a more nuanced approach. Sir Syed believed that the straightforward adoption of the election principle in a country where various races, religious divisions, and educational disparities persist could lead to significant issues. He was concerned that in India, where differences in race, creed, and caste still played a crucial role in socio-political life, a purely election-based system might marginalize smaller communities and intensify existing divisions. Sir Syed cautioned against the potential consequences and argued for a more thoughtful approach to governance in the context of India’s complex social landscape. |
| December 28, 1885: Indian National Congress Formation |
| The Indian National Congress (INC) was established in December 1885. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advised Muslims not to join this party, emphasizing that it primarily represented Hindus and not Muslims. Sir Syed argued that since Muslims constituted a separate nation, they should establish their distinct political entity. However, due to a lack of a substantial educated class throughout British India at that time, forming a separate Muslim body was challenging. Therefore, Sir Syed urged Muslims to focus on education in several speeches. After his death in 1898, his associates eventually founded a Muslim political party. |
| 1887: Sir Syed speech |
| In a strong and assertive speech, Sir Syed expressed, “When our Hindu brethren or Bengali friends wish to make a move that involves a loss to us and humiliation to our nation, we cannot remain friendly. Undoubtedly, it is our duty to protect our nation from those attacks of the Hindus and Bengalis, which, we are sure, are going to harm our nation.” |
| October 27, 1888: Badruddin Tyabji, a Muslim leader from Bombay joined the INC |
| Badruddin Tyabji, a Muslim leader from Bombay who was affiliated with the Indian National Congress (INC), wrote a letter to A. O. Hume, Secretary-General of the Congress. In the letter, Tyabji conveyed that an overwhelming majority of Muslims opposed the Congress movement, despite the support it received from some educated Muslims. He noted increasing bitterness between Hindus and Muslims and highlighted that prominent figures like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Syed Amir Ali, and Abdul Latif were against the Congress. |
| 1888: Sir Syed at Meerut |
| Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, in a speech at Meerut, expressed concern about the proposals of the Congress, stating that they were impractical for a country inhabited by two distinct nations – Muslims and Hindus. He emphasized the potential conflict if the English were to leave India, suggesting that one of the two communities would have to conquer the other, as equality in power between Muslims and Hindus would be impossible to maintain. |
| 1893: Durand Line between British Indian Empire and Afghanistan |
| The Durand Line, established in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, delineated the border between the British Indian Empire and Afghanistan. This line later became the international border between Afghanistan and Pakistan after the creation of Pakistan in 1947. The agreement was part of geopolitical considerations and has been a source of ongoing tension between the two nations. |
| March 27, 1898: Sir Syed passed Away |
| The death of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan created a vacuum in leadership, and the need for a political party began to be realized. |
| 1901 Creation of N.W.E.P. By British Govt. |
| The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), initially a British Indian province, later became part of Pakistan. In 2010, it was renamed Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to better represent its cultural identity, especially its significant Pashtun population. |
| 1905: Partition of Bengal |
| The Partition of Bengal in 1905 by Viceroy Lord Curzon led to contrasting reactions. Muslims welcomed it for potential socio-economic gains, while Hindus opposed it, viewing it as a division of their homeland. The Congress joined the anti-partition movement, triggering widespread agitation and a boycott of foreign goods, shaping the trajectory of the Muslim political movement in India. |
| 1906: Simla Deputation |
| A delegation led by Aga Khan and 35 Muslim leaders met Viceroy Lord Minto on October 1 at Simla, making two key demands: Separate representation for Muslims Weight age in all elected bodies. This marked an early Muslim effort to secure their rights. |
| 1906 : Founding of the All-India Muslim League |
| The All India Muslim League, established in Dhaka in December 1906, aimed to protect Muslim interests. Its key objectives were: To promote loyalty to the British government. Advance the interests of Indian Muslims, and prevent hostility toward other communities. The league played a crucial role in the Pakistan Movement. |
| 1909: Minto – Morley Reforms |
| The reforms included separate electorates in all provinces, an expansion of the Imperial Legislative Council and provincial councils. They addressed the demands of the Simla Deputation (1906). |
| 1911 : Annulment of the Partition of Bengal |
| In December 1911, King George V announced the annulment of the partition of Bengal at a ‘darbar’ in Delhi, leading to bewilderment among Muslims. The annulment was a result of Hindu agitation, widening the cleavage between Hindus and Muslims. Khawaja Sir Salimullah, President-elect of the All India Muslim League, expressed concern over the decision, stating that it put a premium on sedition and disloyalty. |
| 1913: Quaid Joined Muslim League |
| Quaid-e-Azam, who was initially a member of the Indian National Congress, joined the Muslim League in 1913. As a member of both of India’s influential political parties, he worked with renewed determination for his long-cherished objective of Hindu-Muslim unity. |
| 1914 – 18: World War I |
| World War I, also known as the Great War, was an international conflict that took place between August 1914 and November 1918. The opposing sides included France, Russia, and Great Britain on one side, and Germany, Austria, and Turkey on the other. The war concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1918. In India, the Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was an offshoot of the repercussions of World War I. |
| 1916 December : Lucknow Pact |
| The joint League-Congress agreement marked a moment of goodwill and friendship between the Muslim League and the Congress. Under the leadership of Quaid-e-Azam, the Muslim League’s efforts were reciprocated by the Congress, leading to the concession of separate electorates for Muslims. This pact, facilitated by Quaid-e-Azam’s endeavors, stands as the first and last agreement between Muslims and Hindus. Quaid-e-Azam was honored with the title “Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity” by Sarojini Naidu. |
| 1919 : Rowlett Act |
| The Rowlatt Act, a repressive law in India, granted the government unchecked powers to prosecute Indians without legal assistance or appeal rights. Similar to the pre-French Revolution “Lettres de Cachet,” it sparked protests, leading Jinnah to resign from the central legislature in opposition. |
| 1919 April: Jallianwala Bagh Incident |
| In the Jallianwala Bagh massacre at Amritsar, General Dyer opened fire on a crowd, resulting in a tragic loss of human lives (379 casualties) and is considered a major tragedy in India. In 1940, ‘Ram Muhammad Singh Azad’ sought revenge for the massacre by killing Punjab Governor Sir Michael O’Dwyer. During the Nagpur Session of the Congress in December 1920, non-cooperation with the government was approved, but Jinnah opposed and left the Congress due to his stance against the use of extra-constitutional means of protests. |
| 1919 : Montague – Chelmfsord Reforms |
| Lord Chelmsford, the new Governor General of India, conducted extensive meetings during his six-month tenure. In collaboration with Edwin Montague, he compiled a report on constitutional reforms in 1918. The report was discussed in the House of Commons, approved by the parliament, and introduced in India in 1919 as the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms Act of 1919. |
| 1919-23 : Khilafat Movement |
| The Khilafat Movement, led by the Ali Brothers, was an Indian Muslim movement aimed at preserving the Khilafat and the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Gandhi supported the movement and advocated non-cooperation with the British. In response, some Indian Muslims undertook ‘Hijrat’ to express their discontent. However, the movement lost momentum when Mustafa Kamal Ataturk abolished the caliphate. |
| 1920: Jinnah resigned from congress |
| In 1920, Jinnah resigned from the Congress due to its adoption of satyagraha, which he considered political anarchy. By 1940, he believed that Muslims should have their own state. Leading the Muslim League, Jinnah passed the Lahore Resolution in 1940, demanding a separate nation. |
| 1922-29: Hindu – Muslim Riots |
| From 1922 onwards, India experienced seven years of violent Hindu-Muslim riots. Hindu leaders engaged in communal activities, such as Arya Samaj, shuddhi, and sanghathan, targeting Muslims. These events heightened communal bitterness and intensified Muslim hostility. |
| 1927: Arrival of Simon Commission headed by sir Simon |
| The Simon Commission, consisting of seven British Members of Parliament led by Sir John Simon, was appointed to study constitutional reform in British India. Arriving in 1928, the commission assessed the need for reforms in Britain’s largest and most significant possession. |
| 1927 March 20: Delhi Muslim Proposals |
| In 1927, a group of prominent Muslims convened in Delhi, proposing a fresh attempt at a Hindu-Muslim settlement. The Muslims were willing to forgo the separate electorate if their demands were met: Separate Sind from Bombay.Introduce reforms in NWFP and Baluchistan.Ensure Muslim representation in the Central Legislature not less than 1/3.Provide Muslim representation according to their population with reserved seats. |
| 1928: Nehru Report |
| The Nehru Report, published in August 1929, was deemed anti-Muslim and included recommendations such as: Inserting a declaration of Human Rights.Granting full provincial status to NWFP.Separating Sind from Bombay.Immediately abolishing separate electorates.Disallowing any weightage.The report rejected the idea of a federation and favored a unitary government. |
| 1929: Quaid-i-Azam’s Fourteen Points |
| During a period of internal dissension within the Muslim League, the Quaid-e-Azam (Jinnah) proposed the famous Fourteen Points, outlining a program for Muslim unity. The key points included: Advocating a federal form of constitution for India.Proposing full-fledged provincial status for Sind, Baluchistan, and the North-West Frontier. |
| 1930: Simon Commission Report |
| A constitutional report that rejected the unitary system and recommended a federal framework for India. It also recommended Doing away with diarchy and Setting up of a Council of Greater India. |
| 1930: Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam |
| Formed on December 29, 1929, in Lahore during the British Raj, Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam, also known as Ahrar, is a religious Muslim political party in the Indian subcontinent. Comprising Indian Muslims disenchanted with the Khilafat Movement for its proximity to the Congress Party, the Ahrar emerged as a distinct political entity. |
| 1930- December: Allam Iqbal Address |
| Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal, a prominent Muslim intellectual, left a profound impact on history. His inspiration resonated among Muslims in the Subcontinent and beyond, fostering a sense of identity and purpose. Iqbal articulated a vision for the political future of Indian Muslims, emphasizing its role in realizing the Ummah’s goals. His Allahabad Address outlined a compelling framework and dream for the Muslim community. |
| 1930-32: Round Table Conferences (RTCs) |
| The rejection of the Simon Proposals by the Muslim League and Congress led to the British government inviting Indian leaders for discussions on India’s future constitution. The three Round Table Conferences took place as follows: First Round Table Conference (November 1930 to January 1931)Second Round Table Conference (September 1931 to December 1931)Third Round Table Conference (November 1932 to December 1932) Muslim representation included leaders such as Quaid-e-Azam and Allama Iqbal. Hindu opposition to Muslim demands, including separate electorates, was evident. The British government, after the Second Round Table Conference, issued the “Communal Award” in August 1932, outlining its findings and recommendations. |
| 1932- August: The Communal Award |
| Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award, which included the following provisions: Separate electorates for all minorities in India.Weightage for minorities.No Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal, departing from the Lucknow Pact.One-third representation for Muslims in the Central legislature.One-fourth representation for Muslims in services.Sind to be made a province. |
| 1932- September: Poona Pact |
| The Congress strongly opposed the provision of separate electorates for Indian minorities, particularly low-caste Hindus referred to by Gandhi as “Harijans” (sons of God). Gandhi even went on a fast unto death to protest against the separate electorate for the “sons of God.” Eventually, an agreement was reached with the low caste to give up the demand for separate electorates in order to save Gandhi’s life. |
| 1932: Communal Award |
| The process of constitution-making in India underwent several stages, from the Government of India Act 1919 to the Communal Awards in 1932. Communal rivalries were evident during discussions with Indian leadership. The Simon Commission and Round Table Conferences failed to devise an agreeable formula. Indian leaders were unable to reach a consensus to resolve the communal problem. In August 1932, the Communal Award was announced, allowing separate electorates for Muslims to continue. |
| 1933: Pakistan National Movement |
| Choudhry Rahmat Ali passionately advocated the Scheme of Pakistan from its inception in 1933. This movement laid the groundwork for the Pakistan Movement, ultimately resulting in the creation of Pakistan as an independent state in 1947. The movement concluded with the death of its founder in 1951. |
| 1933: Pakistan Declaration / Now or Never Pamphlet |
| The “Pakistan Declaration,” titled “Now or Never; Are We to live or Perish Forever?” was a pamphlet penned and published by Choudhary Rahmat Ali on January 28, 1933. This document marked the first use of the word “Pakstan” (without the letter “i”). Rahmat Ali presented the concept in the Round Table conferences in 1933. |
| 1935: Government of India Act |
| In light of the Communal Award, the British government formulated a constitutional bill, which was passed by the Parliament in February 1935. This legislation, titled the Government of India Act, consisted of two parts. Notably, the Act had a federal character, granting a reasonable degree of autonomy to Indian provinces. It came into effect on April 1937. |
| 1937: Elections |
| The 1937 elections were conducted with a restricted franchise and separate electorates. The Congress presented itself as an all-India force representing various religions and factions. The Muslim League, focusing on Muslim seats, faced tough competition from other Muslim organizations. Congress secured majorities in Madras, U.P., C.P., Bihar, and Orissa, emerging as the largest party in Bombay with 704 out of 1585 general seats. The Muslim League performed poorly, winning only about 21 percent of Muslim seats without a majority in Bengal, Punjab, NWFP, and Sind, primarily due to organizational issues and opposition from local Muslim groups. |
| 1937 July: Formation of Provincial Governments |
| In July 1937, Congress established governments in six provinces. In NWFP, a coalition government was formed by Khudai Khidmatgar and Congress. The Muslim League couldn’t form governments in Muslim-majority provinces. In the U.P., where the Muslim League desired to be part of the government, Congress agreed to conditional support with terms like dissolving the AIML Parliamentary Board, AIML members not functioning separately, and expressing allegiance to Congress. These terms aimed at undermining the existence of the Muslim League, leading to an impasse as no agreement was reached on these conditions. |
| 1937-39: Congress Rule in the Provinces |
| Congress governed seven out of the eleven provinces, and their rule was perceived as dictatorial, akin to a nightmare. This period reinforced the idea of Pakistan and created a sense of alienation among Muslims, distancing them from the vision of a united India. |
| 1938: A. K. Fazlul Huq of Bengal joined Muslim League |
| Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq, born in Saturia, Barisal, was a prominent Bengali lawyer, legislator, and statesman in the 20th century. He gained renown as one of the most respected lawyers in the High Courts of Dhaka and Calcutta. Huq joined the Muslim League in 1938 and became a major political figure in British India and later in Pakistan. |
| 1938: Jinah Sikandar pact |
| The Jinnah-Sikandar Pact, signed between Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan in Lucknow, British India, was a crucial agreement that played a significant role in the creation of Pakistan. According to Professor Stanley Wolpert, it was instrumental in making Pakistan possible. The pact addressed the political concerns and representation of Muslims in the influential and affluent province of Punjab, which was pivotal in connecting various Muslim regions and provinces. |
| 1938: Pirpur Report |
| The report on the working of the Congress ministries highlighted Muslim grievances, stating, “The Congress has failed to inspire confidence in the minorities. It is a Hindu Organization. The just and legitimate demands of the Muslims were ignored.” This excerpt reflects concerns about the Congress ministries’ perceived Hindu-centric approach and the neglect of Muslim interests. |
| 1939-45 : World War II |
| World War II was a global conflict that took place from 1939 to 1945, involving the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied powers (Britain, France, the U.S., the U.S.S.R, and China). It was a struggle between the forces of democracy and dictatorship, resulting in the loss of approximately 55 million lives. Germany surrendered in May 1945, and Japan surrendered in July 1945 after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. |
| 1939: Resignation of congress ministries |
| On September 3, 1939, the Viceroy declared India at war with Germany. The Congress strongly objected to the declaration without prior consultation and demanded the formation of a central Indian national government committed to India’s independence after the war. When the Viceroy rejected these demands, the Congress ministries resigned on October 22, 1939. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, pleased with the resignations, called for Indian Muslims to celebrate December 22, 1939, as a “Day of Deliverance” from Congress. |
| 1940 19 March: The Pakistan Resolution |
| The Pakistan Resolution, a landmark in Indian Muslim history, was passed in March 1940 at the Muslim League session in Lahore under the presidency of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. This resolution demanded the grouping of Muslim-majority areas to constitute independent states, leading directly to the creation of Pakistan. |
| 1940 19 March: Khaksar Massacre in Lahore |
| On March 19, 1940, the police opened fire on the Khaksars in Lahore, resulting in casualties. Five days later, during its historic session in Lahore, the All-India Muslim League passed both the Pakistan Resolution and the Khaksar Resolution. |
| 1942: Cripps Mission |
| Sir Stafford Cripps arrived in New Delhi for talks with Indian leaders on the future constitution of India. The Muslim League rejected the proposals due to the absence of provisions for amendments and the formation of two constituent assemblies instead of one. |
| 1942: QUIT INDIA Movement |
| The Quit India movement was a civil disobedience movement launched in India in August 1942 in response to Mohandas Gandhi’s call for independence. The Congress Committee proclaimed a mass protest demanding an “orderly British withdrawal” from India. However, the movement failed due to heavy-handed suppression, weak coordination, and the lack of a clear-cut program of action. The British government, realizing that India was ungovernable in the long run, refused to grant immediate independence, stating that it could only happen after the war ended. Many Congress leaders were imprisoned without trial during this movement. |
| 1944: Gandhi – Jinnah Talks |
| Gandhi-Jinnah talks were held in Bombay to resolve differences between the Congress and the All India Muslim League on the issue of Pakistan. Gandhi, opposed to the Two Nations Theory, refused Muslims the right of self-determination. Unfortunately, these talks failed to reach a resolution. |
| 1945: The Simla Conference |
| A conference convened by the Viceroy in Simla discussed the formation of an Executive Council. The Congress claimed to represent all communities and sought the right to nominate Muslims. The All India Muslim League asserted its exclusive right to nominate Muslim members. The conference failed to resolve this issue. |
| 1946: Elections |
| The Muslim League made its stance clear, asserting its sole representation of Muslims and the pursuit of Pakistan as its ultimate goal. A massive campaign was launched with Islamic slogans gaining widespread popularity, framing the struggle for Pakistan on the basis of Islam. Students played a prominent role in this political drive. In contrast, the Congress advocated independence from British rule in the form of an undivided India, appealing to all Indian communities. In the December 1945 elections for the Central Legislature, the Muslim League secured victory in all 30 Muslim seats, while the Congress won 57 seats. |
| 1946 February: Provincial Elections |
| In the provincial elections, the Muslim League secured victory in most of the Muslim seats: Punjab: 79 out of 86 Muslim seatsBengal: 113 out of 119 Muslim seatsSindh: 28 out of 35 Muslim seatsNWFP: 17 out of 38 Muslim seats The Muslim League also performed impressively in Muslim minority provinces. It formed its ministry in Sindh, while Khudai Khidmatgar (led by Dr. Khan) took charge in NWFP. In Bengal, a coalition government with the Muslim League was formed, and in Punjab, the government included Unionists (20), Akalis, and the Congress under Khizr Hayat Tiwana. |
| 1946: The Cabinet Mission |
| In March 1946, the British government sent three senior members of the British Cabinet in a last attempt to preserve the unity of the Indian federation. The Mission aimed to reconcile differences between the Congress and Muslim League. Despite discussions with high-ranking leaders, offers made by the Mission were rejected by both parties. In May 1946, the Cabinet Mission announced its plan, stating that the proposals were final and could not be amended. The Congress and Muslim League were given the freedom to accept or reject the Plan as a whole. |
| 1946: Direct Action Day |
| Disgusted with the Congress stance vis-à-vis the Cabinet Mission Plan, the Quaid voted for observing Direct Action Day on August 16, to press for Pakistan. For the first time in its annals, the League said good-bye to constitutional struggle for achieving their goal. |
| 1946: Interim Government Installed in Office |
| On July 22, the British Government proposed the formation of an Interim Government at the Centre. Initially, both the Congress and the Muslim League rejected the proposal. Subsequently, the Viceroy requested Nehru alone to form the government. The Muslim League expressed discontent with the establishment of a one-party government and displayed black flags. However, they later realized the negative impact of their exclusion from the government on Muslim interests. After extensive and intricate negotiations, the League eventually joined the government, with Liaquat Ali Khan assuming the Finance portfolio. The Congress would later come to regret this decision. |
| 1946: Quit Kashmir Campaign |
| The 1931 protest laid the foundation for the Quit Kashmir movement in 1946, led by Kashmiri leader Sheikh Abdullah. This movement aimed to oppose the rule of the Maharajah. In May 1946, Sheikh Abdullah initiated the “Quit Kashmir” movement, resulting in his arrest. Jawaharlal Nehru attempted to visit Kashmir to support Abdullah but was also arrested and compelled to leave the state. This movement eventually contributed to the Azad Kashmir movement, which gained momentum in the following years. |
| 1946-June 3: Partition Plan |
| The partition plan for India was formulated by Lord Mountbatten, the final Viceroy of India, in consultation with the British government. The plan was grounded in the principle that the transfer of power should align with the desires of the people. A specific time frame for the British withdrawal from the subcontinent was established. The decision was made to transfer power on 15 August 1947, leading to the creation of two successor states, namely India and Pakistan. |
| 14th August 1947: Formation of Pakistan |
| The assemblies of Bengal and Punjab voted in favor of partition, while the Sindh Assembly and Balochistan Jirga opted for Pakistan. A referendum in the North West Frontier Province reported a majority in favor of Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten traveled to Karachi to transfer power to the newly established state of Pakistan on August 14, 1947. Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as the first Governor General, and Liaquat Ali Khan became the first Prime Minister. The territory of Pakistan was divided into two parts: East Pakistan and West Pakistan, separated by nearly one thousand kilometers of Indian land. |
This timeline provides an overview of key events during the period of British rule in the region that eventually became Pakistan.